What role has been played by the media in US political contests Free Essays

Abstract In US political contests, the term media can apply to a range of items that vary from newspaper articles to attack advertisements. This essay examines the role played by the free press- television news and newspapers- and traces the role that free media has come to play in the results and courses of US Presidential elections, refuting, in the process, the position that free media, and the press, acts as passive intermediaries between candidates and the voters. Introduction Protected by The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which reads ‘Congress shall make no law†¦abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press’, free media, especially the press, through dissemination of opinions, facts and analysis of events concerning Presidential candidates and their campaigns, has come to play a large role in the results and courses of presidential elections. We will write a custom essay sample on What role has been played by the media in US political contests? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although Dalton, Beck and Huckfeldt (2008:111) have argued that ‘the media’s role as an intermediary is most evident at election time, when the media are the primary conduits for information on the campaign’, the common recognition that the press acts as part of the ‘Fourth Estate’, a term originally coined by Edmund Burke (quoted in Carlyle, 1841) to acknowledge the noticeable influence of the media upon politics, suggests that the role of the press and media far exceeds the simple passivity of intermediation that Dalton, Beck and Huckfeldt suggest is media’s primary role during an election. Role of Free Media and the Press in US Presidential Elections Even in the initial stages of an election, prior to official party nominations, the press can begin to directly influence public knowledge of the candidates through the frequency and detail in which the candidates are mentioned. Name recognition, in the early stages of a campaign, is of vital importance and is directly effected by, and dependent upon, the media. Ramsden (1996) notes that the victor of the 1984 New Hampshire primary, the relatively unknown Gary Hart, succeeded because he convinced the press, through intense and unprecedented amounts of canvassing, that he was a more viable candidate for the nomination than his opponents John Glenn and Walter Mondale. As such, the media concerned themselves more with Hart’s campaign than with the campaigns of Glenn and Mondale, both established Democrats, and simultaneously increased Hart’s name recognition and the viability of his claim. This media attention added momentum to Hart’s campaign and ultimately allowed him to challenge for, but narrowly lose, the Iowa caucus, and to win the New Hampshire primary by ten percentage points. Although Hart eventually succumbed to the financial superiority of Mondale, and to questions concerning the vagueness of his policies, his victory in the New Hampshire primary, over an already established Democrat, is testament to the power of the media and to the influential role they play even in the early stages of election campaigns. After candidates have officially received party nominations, the role of the media shifts slightly from effecting the nomination to effecting the course of the nominees’ campaigns. Although many believe that the bias of individual press and media networks can effect public opinion, Robinson (1996:101) instead argues that ‘whilst the media can play an important role in changing voters’ perceptions, information, attitudes, and even behaviour’, it is more often the case that media bias simply reinforces, rather than dislodging or replacing, preconceived notions and opinions. Further, Della Vigna and Kaplan (2007: 2) have observed that it is often the case that ‘right-wing voters are more likely to expose themselves to right-wing media, giving an impression that the right-wing media persuades them’ and as such, media-bias and the partisan opinions of the press, in terms of long term impact, has little contribution towards changing the political opi nions of the public. Instead, free press, to some extent, controls the course of the campaign and decides whether it become a horse-race or an issue based campaign. Whilst the media can turn campaigns into horse-races, reporting polling numbers and statistics, making the story less about the ideologies, policies and ideas of the candidates and more about their viability and chances of success, it can also, as Ramsden (1996) argues, act ‘as a spotlight’ for issues (66). Ramsden’s suggestion that media acts as spotlight for issues and ideology, which is itself more in keeping with the spirit of democracy than reporting election campaigns as horse races, argues that the media has the power to select, and cover, certain issues and topics that are not at the top of the campaign’s political agenda and to reposition them as central to the campaign. As Page (1996:22) notes, ‘a large body of evidence now indicates that what appears in print or on the air has a substantial impact u pon how citizens think and what they think about: e.g., what they cite as important problems’, and it is this guidance towards ‘important problems’ that allows the media to shape the campaign paths of the candidates. The public, in general, become more politically active and aware during campaign time (Riker, 1989), and, as Wood and Edwards (1999:328) note that â€Å"the public’s familiarity with political matters is closely related to the amount and duration of attention these affairs receive in the mass media†. In a sense, the press and free media are somewhat able to dictate and influence the agenda of presidential elections, and to choose which issues are central to the debates and campaigns. Ramsden (1996) cites President Jimmy Carter’s victory over the incumbent President Gerald Ford, in which Carter’s inexperience could, and perhaps should, have played a large role in deciding the outcome of the campaign but was largely ignored by the public because the media did not make it a concern, in order to demonstrate the control that free media can exercise over topics and issues during campaigns. Conclusion Therefore, whilst the media may hold a negligible amount of power to convert and transform the public’s political opinions, the real power of the media, or the free press at least, in an election, lies in its editorial, or ‘spotlight’ role. By choosing and highlighting which areas of policy, issues or character concerns receive attention, the free press are able to guide the public towards matters which could determine both their opinions and, as a result, the outcome of the election. Thus, within a political campaign, however undemocratic it may seem, the press and free media are strong and active political agents that can change and dictate not only the agendas and issues during an election, but to some extent, the result itself. Bibliography Andersen, K. (1984) A Wild Ride to the End, Time Magazine Carlyle, T. (1841) On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History. The Echo Library, 2007 Dalton R.J, Beck P.A Huckfeldt R. (1998), Partisan Cues and the Media: Information Flows inthe 1992 Presidential Election, American Political Science Review, Vol 92, Number 1, March 1998 DellaVigna, S Kaplan E. (2007) The Fox News Effect, Media Bias and Voting, Quarterly Journal of Economics. Gerges, Fawaz A. (1999) Shaping Opinion. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 28, No. 2: pp. 104-106 Page, Benjamin I. (1996) The Mass Media as Political Actors. Political Science and Politics, Vol.29, No. 1 pp. 20-24 Ramsden, Graham P. (1996) â€Å"Media Coverage of Issues and Candidates: What Balance is Appropriate in a Democracy?† Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 111, No. 1. pp. 65-81 Riker, W. H. (1989). Why Negative Campaigning is Rational. (Paper presented at the annualmeeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA) Robinson, John E. (1976) â€Å"The Press and the Voter.† Annals of the American Academy of Politicaland Social Science, Vol. 427. pp.95-103 The Constitution of the United States, Amendment I, (1791) Wood, Dan B. and Edwards, George C. (1999) â€Å"Who Influences WhomThe President, Congress, and the Media.† The American Political Science Review, Vol. 93, No. 2. pp. 327-344 How to cite What role has been played by the media in US political contests?, Essay examples What role has been played by the media in US political contests Free Essays Abstract The media has often played a significant role in political campaigns. Media coverage can contribute to the way a candidate is viewed in the eyes of the public, a fact that became even more prevalent during the 2008 U.S. We will write a custom essay sample on What role has been played by the media in US political contests? or any similar topic only for you Order Now elections with the introduction of ‘New Media.’ Introduction The following essay is an examination of the media’s role in US political contests. It will look at the rise of the celebrity politician in the 2008 general election whilst examining the importance of new media, old media and the virtues of the public appearance and perception of politicians. The essay will end wondering if media coverage in the 2012 election has begun to slide. Main Body The 2008 presidential race was particularly media saturated and the public perceptions of the candidates were often shaped by the media. As stated by Halperin Heilemann it was â€Å"as riveting and historic a spectacle as modern politics had ever produced† (2010:IX) and received â€Å"wall- to-wall media coverage† (2010:IX). The Media had a bigger role in the 2008 election than simply following events though as it gave birth to, or at least brought to maturity, the idea of the celebrity politician, as witnessed by the twin phenomenon of Barack Obama and Sarah Palin. Halperin Heilemann note that a smear campaign against Obama was thought up by McCain adman Fred Davis who said they should, with reference to Obama’s celebrity, â€Å"turn that against him. Big CelebritySo’s Britney Spears! So’s Paris Hilton!† (2010:330). The eventual ad was called ‘Celeb’ (Halperin Heilemann, 2010) and it led to the first chink in Obama’s a rmour with the media. It is interesting to note that later on when Palin was chosen as the running mate on the republican ticket there were fears in the McCain camp that the same type of campaign could be used against her (Halperin Heilemann, 2010), illustrating that this type of coverage, and the way political campaigns use the media, can be a double edged sword. New Media played a significant role in the 2008 election. Canavan states the Obama campaign was â€Å"aided by an acute awareness of mimetic branding and viral marketing† (2010:14). Schudson observes â€Å"in 2008 the â€Å"new media† played a newly prominent role† (2009:6). The use of new media in the Obama campaign was an important part of his strategy. Canavan writes that the Obama campaign produced â€Å"half a billion dollars from three million people over the Internet† (2010:15). This shows that the proliferation of new media in the 2008 general election, and the use of it by the candidate who most visibly signified change, was a huge coup, certainly at least where donors were concerned. What of traditional media thoughDo the news networks or the press still play a role in US political racesThe answer, at least pertaining to the 2008 race, is an unequivocal yes. The deeper question though is how these institutions actually affect the outcome of an election. In terms of the 2008 election it must be concluded that they played a massive part. Halperin Heilemann note that almost every political entity in their book has a scene where they complain about the way they are being represented in the press, even Obama (2010). But it would seem that much of the press wanted Obama to win as they would ignore infractions made by him that they would not consider for other candidates, as noted by Halperin Heilemann when, after being jabbed at by Obama in a debate, Hillary Clinton complained to her aides â€Å"can you imagine if I’d made a crack like that?† (2010:180). Halperin Heilemann go onto say â€Å"the press would have guillotined her on the spot† (2010 :180). Street asks the question of whether the media’s role in political races is a good or a bad thing. He writes â€Å"reliance on television as a medium of communication tends to shift the criteria by which politicians are judged and by which they operate. Television’s intimacy, its use of close-ups and one-to-one conversations, focuses attention on politicians’ ‘human’ qualities. The result is that populist empathy rather than elite leadership becomes valued† (2004:6). Street also notes however that aesthetics and the way candidates are perceived in the media can be an important part of a political contest because aesthetics and perception can provide a notion of the candidate’s character and that is an important aspect to consider when entering the voting booth (2004). Now that the political world is observed by both new and old media, it is interesting to note how the two have played their part so far in the 2012 election. As far as new media is concerned, the interest certainly seems to have waned. Journalist Susan Delacourt observes â€Å"The 2008 presidential election that brought Barack Obama to power was probably a â€Å"watershed† for social media†¦an apex that probably won’t be reached again in the current U.S. campaign† (2012). The current election seems to have passed by old media in many ways as well. Matthew Stieglitz wryly asks of the 2012 election â€Å"that the media bring its election coverage to something bearing a resemblance to news, and that people become informed. If the issues mentioned above are any indication, this country would be better served with a populace that spends time debating politics instead of debating the cancellation of Jersey Shore† (2012). Maybe the politics just as arenâ₠¬â„¢t as interesting to a media that can now observe the politics of reality TV stars personal lives†¦and don’t need a press pass to do it. Conclusion As you can see, historically media has played a big part in the political landscape and has helped to shape people’s views of the candidate, whether through highlighting their proposals or simply believing in the character of the person they have shown on TV. In 2008 media coverage of the election seemed to reach a critical mass, in both old and new media, but both have now begun to contract somewhat. Bibliography Heilemann, J. Halperin, M., (2010), Race of a Lifetime, 1st Edition, the Penguin Group, Great Britain Canavan, G., (2009) ‘Person of the Year: Obama, Joker, Capitalism, Schizophrenia.’ Politics and Popular Culture. [online] Available at: http://www.c-s-p.org/flyers/978-1-4438-2259-6-sample.pdf [Accessed 12th September 2012] Schudson, M., (2009)’ The New Media in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Campaign: The New York Times watches its back.’ Javnost-the public. [online] Available at: http://www.journalism.columbia.edu/system/documents/270/original/javnost-nyt2008.pdf [Accessed September 13th 2012] Street, J., (2004) ‘Celebrity Politicians: Popular Culture and Political Representation.’ The British Journal of Politics International Relations. [online] Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-856X.2004.00149.x/pdf [Accessed 12th September 2012] Delacourt, S. (2012) ‘Is ‘new’ media becoming old hat in the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign?’ The Star. [online] Available at: http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1227281–is-new-media-becoming-old-hat-in-the-2012-u-s-presidential-campaign [Accessed 12th September 2012] Stieglitz, M., ‘Dear American Media: Step Up Your Game.’ Politics 365. [online] Available at: http://politic365.com/2012/09/07/dear-american-media-step-your-game-up/ [Accessed September 8th 2012] How to cite What role has been played by the media in US political contests?, Essay examples What role has been played by the media in US political contests Free Essays In democratic societies the media has traditionally played the role of intermediary in electoral contests, disseminating information from political campaigns and candidates to the voting public. However, some political scientists believe that, in contemporary US elections, the media act not merely as a medium through which campaign information is filtered, but as a agent which shapes the campaign agenda and influences voters perceptions of candidates. Introduction This essay discusses the various roles which the media play when reporting on elections in the United States. We will write a custom essay sample on What role has been played by the media in US political contests? or any similar topic only for you Order Now It traces the changing perceptions of the role of the journalist and media, from the theory of the fourth estate to the practise of agenda-setting within a partisan media organisation. The rise of social media within election campaigns allows candidates to become the medium, connecting with voters directly. Media Role In The Fourth Branch of Government, Cater described the role that reporters and the media play in the political system (quoted in Cook, 1998). He believed reporters were a ‘recorder of government, but also a participant’ (Cook, 1998:1). Cook himself saw the media as a political institution in its own right, without whose interaction with the other branches of government (executive, legislature, judiciary), democracy could not function. The relationship between media and government is, Cook believes, a ‘co-production’ and the reporter ‘a key participant in decision-making and policy making’ (1998:3). The political news media themselves see their role as that of the Fourth Estate, a collective watchdog which holds government and politicians to account and plays an educator role in keeping citizens informed about the key issues shaping their economy and society. At no time is the media’s role as instrumental as during an election campaign. A s Dalton, Beck and Huckfeldt (2008b: 111) point out, ‘the media’s role as an intermediary is most evident at election time, when the media are the primary conduits for information on the campaign’. In the US, the commercial media play a dual role during political contests – as well as scrutinising the behaviour and policies of candidates, it carries paid-for political advertisements. These adverts constitute a significant source of income for news media: the Campaign Media Analysis Group estimate that $2.6bn was spent on political advertising during the 2008 Presidential election. The media, especially television, therefore also plays a commercial role in US elections. The commercial nature of the candidate’s relationship with media affects the coverage given to candidate’s campaigns, with media bias or partisanship now prevalent within most major US media outlets (DellaVigna and Kaplan, 2007). Broadcasters such as CNN and PBS, along with print and digital media such as The New York Times, Newsweek and The Huffington Post are perceived to have a bias toward Democratic candidates, while news media such as FOX, The Washington Post and Time magazine give more favourable coverage to Republican candidates. Between the 1940s and 1970s, there was a widespread assumption that citizens voted along predictable, partisan lines, and therefore media reporting of campaigns had little or no impact on election outcomes (Lazarfeldt referred to by Finkel, 1993). The decline of partisanship in US politics since the 1960s (Abramson 1982, referred to in Finkel 1993) has seen this theory of minimal effects replaced with a belief that media can influence and change voter orientation (Finkel 1993). This acknowledgement of the influence of media has led to renewed focus on the role the media plays in elections. Shaw has highlighted the distinction between the media as medium and the media as agent (2001:16). In the 2008 primaries, for example, it is widely believed that the Democratic-leaning media forced John Edwards out of the nomination race, while advocating the candidatures of both Barack Obama and Hilary Clinton. In such cases, the role of the media as agent becomes apparent. Stromback and Dimitrova , after conducting a comparative content analysis of election coverage in selected Swedish and US newspapers, concluded that while Swedish media focused on campaign issues, US media treated political contests as more of a ‘strategic game’ or ‘horse-race’ (2006: 132). Their contention was that the media had come to see a political race almost as a sporting event, prioritising trivia and personalities over the substance of policy and ideology. Dalton, Beck and Huckfeldt challenged this view however, when they analysed data from media coverage of the 1992 presidential election. Comparing issues covered by the media to issues the public professed to care about, they found a very tight convergence between the issues relevant to media, candidates and the general public (1998a). McCombs (1997) explains the rationale behind this finding. He believes that the media play an agenda-setting role by giving greater prominence or ‘salience’ to certain issues. Once in the public domain, these issues capture the public’s attention. In this way the public agenda and the media agenda have tended to converge toward a consensus. Comscore, a US company which monitors the digital world, confirmed in a recent report entitled The Digital Politico that digital media is now a ‘formidable platform’ for political campaigns (2012). While campaign finance teams continue to spend more on TV and Radio advertising than on digital, activities such as social media (in particular Twitter), digital advertising and paid search are playing an increasingly prominent role in US elections. The use of social media as campaign strategy has given candidates more opportunities to set their own agendas and communicate directly with the electorate. Farnsworth and Lichter contend that these ‘unmediated speeches, advertisements and internet web pages †¦ qualify as the more substantive, more useful and more accurate forms of campaign discourse’ (2007:6). Conclusion The ideal of the media as a watchdog on power is still relevant to some extent, as many media outlets do hold candidates to account through scrutiny of campaign finances or probing of a candidate’s commitment to a policy. However, the commercial nature of media and cable television in particular, means that media organisations have become increasingly partisan. Most political scientists today agree that the US media influences the campaign as a political agent, and is no longer just a medium through which the public receives news and analysis. Bibliography Cook, T.E, Governing with the News: The News Media as a Political Institution, University of Chicago Press 1998 Comscore Inc., 2012, The Digital Politico: 5 Ways Digital Media is Shaping the 2012 Presidential Elections, April 30 2012 Dalton R.J, Beck P.A, Huckfeldt R. 1998a, A Test of Media-Centered Agenda Setting: Newspaper Content and Public Interests in a Presidential Election, Political Communication Journal, Vol 15, Number 4, 1 September 1998 pp 463-481 (19) Dalton R.J, Beck P.A Huckfeldt R. 1998b, Partisan Cues and the Media: Information Flows in the 1992 Presidential Election, American Political Science Review, Vol 92, Number 1, March 1998 DellaVigna, S Kaplan E. The Fox News Effect, Media Bias and Voting, Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (August 2007) Farnsworth, S.J Lichter S.R, The Nightly News Nightmare: Television’s Coverage of Presidential Elections, 1988-2004, 2nd ed. 2007 Rowman and Littlefield Finkel, S.E, Re-examining the Minimal Effects Model in Recent Presidential Campaigns, The Journal of Politics, Vol 55, Number 1 (Feb 1993) pp 1-21 Roderick P.H Shaw D.R 2001, Communication in US Elections, Rowman and Littlefield Stromback J Dimitrova D.V 2006, Political and Media Systems Matter, A Comparison of Election News Coverage in Sweden and the US, The International Journal of Press/Politics, Fall 2006 Vol 11, Number 4, pp 131-147 McCombs, M, 1997, Building Consensus, The News Media’s Agenda Setting Roles, Political Communication, Vol 14, Issue 4, pp 433-443 How to cite What role has been played by the media in US political contests?, Essay examples